Who doesn’t remember this wonderful Pushkin poem? The forces of nature are formidable and mysterious, but man steals them... True, in the time of Pushkin the composition of the poison contained in the anchar was not yet known and its effect had not been studied. Now toxicologists know that the poisonous principle of the Javanese anchar is antiarin is a substance of steroid nature (close in chemical structure to digitalis, strophanthin and other potent cardiac drugs). The juice of anchara and other related plants has long been used as an arrow poison in East Asia. On the Malay Peninsula and the islands of Indonesia, where anchar juice became widespread, they knew that only 90 grams of it was enough for 100 deadly arrows. If you hit a monkey with one such arrow, it will fall from the tree dead in two to three minutes. Antiarin and strophanthin have an extremely strong effect on the heart muscle - this is their particular danger. If the heart has stopped and two or three minutes have passed, then it is almost impossible to restore its contractions. It is interesting that the discovery of the effect of strophanthin on the heart was led to... accidental contamination of a toothbrush with African arrow poison (this happened during one of Livingston's expeditions).
The cardiac poisons digitoxin and convallotoxin, which are similar in action, are contained in digitalis and lily of the valley, which serve as sources for medicinal cardiac glucosides. But not only anchar or foxglove - the plant world is fraught with an unlimited number of poisons. A simple listing of the most poisonous plants would take several pages. Here, in addition to antiarin, we will talk about only a few more plant poisons that are of particular interest both historically and toxicologically. Many of them are now obtained not only from plants, but also synthetically.
Atropa cuts the thread of life
Atropine known since ancient times. Today it has many medicinal benefits, but in the distant past it was better known as a poison. Atropine is found in such widespread plants as belladonna and henbane. In addition, atropine is found in mandrake, which has long enjoyed the reputation of being an unsurpassed medicine and poison. The word atropine comes from the Latin name of the belladonna plant - atropa belladonna. Atropa is the name of one of the three mythological Parks (goddesses of fate). The French sculptor Debe gave the Parks images of young maidens: Clopho, crowned with fruits, holds a spindle and the thread of human life, which the inexorable Atropa, with branches of a gloomy, mournful cypress on her head, is about to cut, and Lachesis takes a ball from the urn to inscribe on it everything that will happen in the life of a mortal. (Interestingly, one of the modern atropine-like drugs was named lachesine). History holds many secrets related to the use of atropine for criminal purposes. Fiction also talks about this: Shakespeare, describing the murder of Hamlet’s father, turns to henbane, the active principle of which is atropine. The Phantom speaks about this, addressing the Prince of Denmark:
"...When I was sleeping in the garden in my afternoon, your uncle crept into my corner with the cursed henbane juice in a flask and poured an infusion into the narthex of my ears, whose action is in such discord with the blood..."
Henbane poisoning occurs with symptoms of mental agitation (hence the saying “henbane has eaten too much”). But it is related to atropine in chemical structure scopolamine, on the contrary, has a calming effect. In this regard, plants containing scopolamine (datura, mandrake) were previously used as narcotic and sleeping pills.
Atropine and scopolamine are now widely used in medicine to treat a number of diseases.
Sleeping Poppy, is the name of a plant whose juice contains opium. Opium is an ancient sedative and hypnotic; The juice obtained from unripe poppy pods was known among the Greeks as a good soporific. According to Pliny, it was widely used as a drug for “complete deliverance from all suffering and disease.” This sleeping pill gradually migrated to the East as a drug. Since then, the infection of opium smoking has brought huge profits to the black market bosses. For many centuries, the secrets of the sleeping pills poppy remained unsolved. But in 1803, 20-year-old Serturner, who was at that time a pharmacist's apprentice in Paderborn, obtained white crystalline powder from opium. The study of its effects on animals began. It turned out that the drug causes in dogs not only the drowsiness characteristic of opium, but also immunity to pain. After performing a series of experiments on himself, Serturner determined the dose required to obtain this effect. He named his drug after the Greek god of sleep. morphine.
Nowadays, morphine is needed relatively rarely as an analgesic, since its substitutes have recently been obtained. The action of the latter does not lead to the development morphinism and therefore their use is safer.
Curare
Curare is one of the poisons that played an exceptional role in the development of experimental toxicology, so it should be discussed in more detail. Its name comes from the Indian word "uirari" ("uira" - bird, and "eor" - to kill). The use of arrows coated with curare in hunting and war began in South America. Initially, the use of curare was limited to the northern region of the river basin. Amazon, and then, after the discovery of America, began to spread to the west and south. The most potent types of curare were produced in the north, along the entire length of the Solemoe River (the name of which means “poison”). Interestingly, this area is still a kind of center for obtaining curare. In the city of Iquitos, east of Solemwe, to this day there is an exchange of poisons between the Indians and the rest of the population. One might have expected that with the advent of firearms among the Indians, curare would lose its importance. However, this did not happen. A blowgun loaded with a curare arrow continues to this day to be the Indians’ favorite weapon for hunting, as it allows them to act covertly and silently. Due to the mysterious ritual involved in making the poison, identifying the plants used to prepare it required extensive observation. It is now known that the active principles that are part of various varieties of curare are extracted from strychnos and chondrodendron plants. The natives, having crushed the shoots of these plants, boil them, evaporating the juice and determining its readiness by the degree of bitterness. The juice of a new plant is added to the condensed boiling liquid and thereby turns the extract into a thick syrup. “It is difficult to imagine how experience and intuition led seemingly such primitive tribes to this extremely significant discovery,” writes the prominent modern Italian pharmacologist Bove.
The active principle of curare, tubocurarine, was isolated in 1820, but it took almost a century to establish its formula (see Fig. 1). Based on Beauvais' research, the first synthetic curare, gallamine, was obtained. In the USSR, diplacin and paramion were proposed. Curare-like drugs have now become necessary in the practice of surgical anesthesia. The fact is that painkillers “relieve” only sensitivity to pain, without causing the necessary relaxation of the muscles. The simultaneous use of painkillers and muscle relaxants completely solves the problem of surgical anesthesia. That is why Bove entitled his article for the Soviet collection “Science and Humanity” (1964) “The blessed poison of curare.” Beneficial in clinical use under strict medical supervision and... deadly in all other cases of life! After all, relaxation and paralysis of the respiratory muscles (diaphragm, intercostal muscles) inevitably lead to respiratory arrest and death. An animal struck by an arrow with curare falls and lies helpless, completely immobilized, until paralysis of the respiratory muscles occurs. The classical experiments of C. Bernard, which we will discuss below, convinced that the effect of curare is “peripheral”: this poison paralyzes the muscles without affecting the brain.
The healing properties of curare, due to its great danger, could not be used for a long time: doctors were simply afraid to use it. And so doctor Smith from the University of Utah decided to conduct an experiment on himself - a successful experiment that, without exaggeration, can be called heroic. Subsequently, he said that after the injection of poison, the throat muscles were first paralyzed. He could no longer swallow and was choking on his own saliva. Then the muscles of the limbs became immobilized: it was impossible to move either an arm or a leg. Then the worst thing happened: paralysis affected the respiratory muscles, but the heart and brain continued to work. At this point the experiment was interrupted. And not without reason... Smith later said: “I felt as if I was buried alive.”
Socrates Cup
Action coniine- an alkaloid contained in the plant hemlock or omega spotted (Latin name - conium), reminiscent of the action of curare. In addition, it has a narcotic effect; It also has toxic manifestations characteristic of nicotine. Hemlock is similar to garden parsley, horseradish, and parsnips (Fig. 2). Distributed throughout the European part of the USSR, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. Poisoning can occur if the roots of the plant are accidentally consumed instead of horseradish.
Spotted hemlock went down in history as the poison that killed the great ancient Greek philosopher Socrates. (According to other sources, Socrates died from omega swamp or poisonous milestone containing cicutotoxin.) His student Plato describes the death of Socrates very plausibly: “When Socrates saw the prison servant, he asked him: well, dear friend, what should I do with this cup? He answered: you must only drink it, then walk back and forth until your thighs become heavy, and then lie down, and then the poison will continue its effect... Socrates emptied the cup very cheerfully and without anger... He walked back and forth, and when he noticed that his thighs were heavy, he lay down straight on his back, as the prison servant told him.”
Centuries passed before scientists tackled the Socratic Cup in the 19th century. After experiments on animals, it was necessary to test its effect on humans. But how to do that? Three Viennese medical students volunteered to help science, each of whom took the poisonous principle of hemlock (coniine) in an amount of 0.003 to 0.08 g. They compiled a detailed description of the action of coniine, much more accurately than Plato did. In particular, students experience such symptoms of poisoning as drowsiness, depression (as with a hangover), deterioration of vision and hearing, drooling, dulling of the sense of touch (the skin became “fluffy” and “goosebumps were running all over it”). Due to the ensuing weakness, the young people could barely keep their heads straight. They moved their arms with great difficulty, their gait became shaky and uncertain, and even the next day their legs trembled when walking... It became obvious that coniine has a multifaceted effect: it causes muscle paralysis and drowsiness, that is, it somehow combines effects of curare and narcotic drugs, complementing them with peculiar sensitivity disorders. This “auto-experiment” was only a weak semblance of the poisoning of Socrates. One can imagine how painful his death was: after all, he drank his cup to the bottom...
"Blue Buttercup"
"Blue buttercup" is better known by its Latin name aconite (see Fig. 3). The last king of Pergamin was Attalus III (Philometr), who lived in the 2nd century. BC e., in his garden he cultivated various poisonous plants, but he paid special attention to aconite (in ancient times it was called the poison of Cerberus). Just like an arrow carrying strophanthin, aconite is capable of instantly hitting an elephant. Yes, this is not surprising if you keep in mind that its lethal dose is only a few milligrams! The poisonous principle of the “blue buttercup” (also called the fighter) is aconitine, which has a burning taste. It is found mainly in the tubers of the plant, where it is extracted from. Grows in forests and ravines. Distributed in the European part of the USSR, Siberia and the Far East. Widely used in homeopathy in the form of tincture. The concentration of aconite in the tincture is 0.05% (this means that 1 cm 3 of tincture contains 0.5 mg of aconite). This dose is approximately 10 times less than the toxic dose. (This shows that other homeopathic remedies are not so innocent!). In modern scientific medicine, aconite is not used.
Rice. 3. "Blue Buttercup" (wolfsbane)
Aconitine is a universal “nerve” poison. It affects the motor, sensory and autonomic nerves, and their excitation is replaced by paralysis. In addition, aconitine has a strong effect on the central nervous system, leading to respiratory arrest.
"The Gift" by Jean Nicot
In the 16th century The French envoy in Lisbon, Jean Nicot, a great lover and collector of plants, was sent unknown seeds from America. It was tobacco. Since then, the cultivation, sniffing and smoking of tobacco began in Europe. In the 17th century, it became so widespread that in some countries the plant itself was “outlawed.” Thus, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich did not allow soldiers to smoke tobacco under pain of exile to Siberia; Pope Urban VIII forbade clergy and laity from chewing and smoking tobacco during worship, so that “they would not stain church utensils with spittle and poison the air with tobacco smoke.” It is well known how widespread smoking is. It’s just difficult to understand what considerations make people revel in the “gift of Jean Nicot” and chronically poison their bodies with nicotine? Most of all, this hobby fits the category of bad habits. It does not hurt to recall that the active principle of tobacco leaves belongs to very strong poisons. A few hundredths of a gram (about 1 drop) of pure nicotine causes severe poisoning in an unaccustomed person. (A case is described when one strong subject smoked 40 cigarettes and 14 cigars within 12 hours and died from nicotine poisoning). At one time, two doctors - Dvorak and Heinrich, who worked for the Viennese pharmacologist Shroff, performed a scientific experiment on themselves, taking 4.5 mg of pure nicotine. Both developed severe poisoning. Among the variety of symptoms, the most serious were the convulsions that appeared at the beginning of the second hour. They also covered the respiratory muscles; breathing became difficult: each exhalation consisted of a series of short convulsive tremors. The subjects also felt unwell the next day. After the experience, both doctors acquired an aversion not only to smoking, but even to the smell of tobacco.
From "judicial" beans to modern OBs
In Calabar (Nigeria), the poisonous effect of the beans of the climbing plant Physostigma venosum (somewhat reminiscent of our beans in appearance) has been known since ancient times. Its pods contain 2-3 seeds containing an extremely poisonous alkaloid physostigmine (eserine). These beans served in Calabar as a means of testing people accused of witchcraft. In addition, duels were in fashion there, in which opponents divided an equal number of beans among themselves. The seeds were also used for the purpose of holding court (hence the name “judicial beans”): the accused was publicly offered to eat a certain amount of them. If he vomited, the person was acquitted; if he died, then his condemnation was considered fair. This naive and cruel method of legal proceedings was nevertheless based on certain elements of a psychological order. The fact is that a person who considered himself innocent ate beans confidently and quickly, as a result of which vomiting began. The culprit ate the beans carefully and slowly; this most often led to the fact that he did not vomit, the eserine was absorbed and death occurred.
According to the first reports of the effects of Calabar beans, the symptoms of eserine poisoning consist of gradually increasing paralysis of the voluntary muscles. "The poisoned person looks blankly, the muscles cease to obey him, he staggers on his feet as if drunk. Breathing becomes difficult, the pulse is weak and rare, the body cools and becomes covered with sweat; finally, complete relaxation and death sets in - apparently without suffering. If detected diarrhea and vomiting, then life is saved in most cases." This description, given in the first scientific manual on toxicology in Russian (E. Pelikan, 1878), quite colorfully characterizes eserine poisoning. Physostigmine did not find widespread use in medicine, but it was destined to play an outstanding role in the development of the science of drugs and poisons. Second decade of the 20th century. was marked by an important discovery: the enzyme cholinesterase, which is of exceptional importance for all nervous activity, was discovered in the body. It was found that physostigmine blocks this enzyme, and this “disarms” it, leading to disruption of the normal course of nervous processes, as a result of which poisoning occurs. Such poisons were called anticholinesterase substances, and the discovery itself was used to obtain synthetic substitutes for physostigmine. One by one, anticholinesterase poisons were discovered, which are now the most toxic of all known synthetic compounds. We are talking about organophosphorus agents, the mechanism of action of which is similar to the action of physostigmine.
As mentioned above, the number of poisonous plants is extremely large, and we have mentioned here only a small part of what is the content of thick manuals and reference books. Our task is not to give a systematic presentation of data on plant poisons, but to show, using several examples, the truly amazing variety of properties that plants contain. Some of them act primarily on the peripheral parts of the nervous system, others selectively affect the functions of the brain, others “wound” the heart, and the action of others is diverse, covering various organs and systems. If we continued to describe poisons of plant origin, we would probably write about strychnine, colchicine, emetine ("emetic root"), ricin (from castor beans), cocaine, santonine, quinine, veratrine (hebore) and many other substances. Unraveling the secrets of nature, man isolated them from a wide variety of plants for use in medicinal medicine. However, there is no need to clutter the presentation with this data. Having understood what inexhaustible reserves of physiologically active compounds are hidden in the plant world, we must hasten to describe the no less extensive kingdom of fungi, microbes and animals. In the process of evolution and the centuries-long struggle for existence, they have developed even more toxic principles that pose a threat to humans.
Dangerously similar
Toxic substances are found in some mushrooms, such as fly agaric and toadstool. Was isolated from fly agaric muscarine, which turned out to be, unlike many plant poisons, a substance of a fairly simple structure. Despite the name, inherited from the mushroom itself ("muska" in Greek for fly), muscarine is safe for insects. Along with muscarine, mushrooms contain protein substances (toxalbumins) that kill flies. Surprisingly, the fly agaric also contains an atropine-like substance, which, as we will see below, is the complete antipode of muscarine in its physiological action. The role of such a symbiosis still remains a mystery. Another comparison is no less interesting: muscarine in its structure almost coincides with acetylcholine, a substance produced in the body of humans and animals and which performs an important function - the transmission of nervous excitation. Take a look at the two structural formulas (see page 21). This similarity is where the danger of mushroom poisoning lies. When muscarine enters the body, it interacts with the same specific systems (they are called cholinergic), which were previously the object of action only by acetylcholine. This invasion turns out to be lengthy and brutal. The result is overexcitation of the entire system and a sharp disruption of the normal course of nervous processes, leading to poisoning. But this overexcitation is relatively easy to eliminate. As soon as atropine is administered to the patient, the poisoning will be cured. What happened? Atropine's structure is partly reminiscent of acetylcholine and thanks to this it “hurries” to connect with “cholinergic” systems. However, the atropine molecule is more bulky and therefore it seems to cover (block) the active surface of the nerve receptor. By doing this, she protects him from the attacks of muscarine.
Muscarine is a strong poison. By stimulating the autonomic part of the nervous system (in charge of regulating cardiac activity, digestion, sweating, smooth muscles of the bronchi, blood vessels and intestines), it causes a slowing of the heartbeat, a drop in blood pressure, bronchospasm (hence suffocation) and other characteristic symptoms. The lethal dose of muscarine for humans is 3-5 mg, which corresponds to 3-4 fly agarics.
There are indications that the drink, previously prepared from fly agaric mushrooms in the north, caused a kind of dope. Since muscarine does not have such an effect, it is attributed to the presence of other toxic substances in the mushroom, in particular atropine-like ones. Psilocybin, a poison found in many types of Mexican mushrooms, has a much more pronounced effect on the psyche. These mushrooms have long been used by Mexicans and Indians as an aphrodisiac.
Antonov fire
Antonov is fire, but there is no law for the fire to always belong to Anton...It is now well known that ergot contains several toxic substances, one of which causes convulsions, and the other a sharp and prolonged spasm of the blood vessels of the extremities, which leads to severe disruption of the trophism (nutrition) of the skin and muscles in the form of gangrene.
Ergot poisoning is now rare, since flour, before entering the bakery, undergoes a thorough hygienic examination and, at the slightest suspicion of containing fungus, is not allowed into food.
Ergot turned out to be an exceptionally rich source for obtaining biologically active substances. This is due to the fact that the structural basis of all alkaloids contained in it is the so-called lysergic acid, which has a complex and unique structure. Minor changes in its structure produce compounds that differ significantly in their properties from ergot. This is how lysergic acid diethylamide was obtained, now widely known under the short name LSD, a drug that has the ability to cause hallucinations in humans in negligible doses. But more on that later.
Poisonous microbes
Some microorganisms produce extremely toxic substances. Thus, the poison of the botulinus bacillus (sausage poison) causes death in humans at a dose of 0.5 mg. It is easy to calculate that 1 g of this neurotoxin can kill 2000 people! However, this is not the limit: the toxins of some types (strains) of the poisonous bacillus are even more dangerous. Thus, the lethal dose of bacillus A neurotoxin is about 0.003 mg (3 micrograms). Fortunately, modern medicine has a reliable remedy for botulism - a very effective anti-botulism serum. In addition to the botulinus bacillus, several other types of microorganisms are known that produce toxins dangerous to humans. These include tetanus bacillus, some types of staphylococci and salmonella (microbes that cause intestinal damage), etc.
There are a lot of flora in the world that look safe and even cute. But be careful what you touch or taste—many plants contain poison that can kill in a matter of hours, Publey reports. Here are the most dangerous plants in the world that you should avoid for your own safety.
#1 Vekh
Known for its beautiful umbelliferous inflorescences, the wech is the most poisonous plant species in North America. Even a drop of a toxin called cicutoxin can kill a large animal or person. This substance affects the nervous system, causing convulsions and paralysis.
#2 Rosary Prayer
This plant has many names, but it got its main name due to the fact that its red berries are often used to make Catholic rosaries. Rosary flowers have bright, beautiful flowers in different shades of red and pink. Even one berry of this plant can cause the death of an adult.
#3 Oleander
Nerium (another name for oleander) is an evergreen tropical shrub with beautiful, colorful flowers. Oleander is popular among gardeners around the world due to its unpretentiousness. But you should know: any part of this plant is very poisonous.
#4 Belladonna
This poisonous berry is native to the deciduous forests of Eurasia. It can be distinguished by its bright shiny black fruits and pale green leaves. All parts of belladonna contain two types of poison: atropine and scopolamine. Both toxins cause muscle spasms and often lead to cardiac arrest. Even touching the leaves can cause a chemical burn.
#5 Rhododendron
This flower is the symbol of Nepal. Initially, it was widespread only in Asia, but now it has inhabited almost all continents (except Antarctica, of course). Rhododendron belongs to the heather family. It is distinguished by beautiful flowers arranged in bunches. The trunk, flowers, leaves and roots contain a very impressive list of toxic substances, each of which is harmful individually, and in combination is extremely dangerous for both people and domestic animals.
#6 Ageratina the Highest
This plant is a relative of the common aster. Grows in Central and North America. Its juice contains a toxic substance, dromol. It causes poisoning, hallucinations, muscle spasms and even death. There is an opinion that Abraham Lincoln's mother died precisely because of ageratina.
#7 Manchineel tree
The homeland of this highly toxic plant is the tropics of both Americas. Even smoke from a fire filled with fresh manzilla wood can cause temporary blindness. Warriors used this to demoralize their opponents. But the most poisonous part of this tree is its fruit. They resemble medium-sized apples and in Mexican the name sounds like “apple of death.”
#8 Hogweed
Perhaps the most famous poisonous plant in central Russia. Previously, hogweed grew only in Asia, but now you can find entire fields of this plant throughout Europe. Hogweed juice contains furocoumarin, which can cause chemical burns, complete blindness and death.
#9 Autumn Colchicum
He's a crocus. Popular among gardeners, but not everyone knows that crocus is poisonous and contains colchicine, which has an effect similar to arsenic. Even a small amount of toxin causes nausea, diarrhea and severe burning in the mucous membrane. Serious intoxication causes organ failure and death.
#10 Cerberus of Adullam
It is also called the “suicide tree” because it is responsible for more deaths than any other representative of the flora kingdom. Cerberus grows in the tropical forests of India. According to official data, more than 150 people die a year due to poisoning by Cerberus fruits. However, this plant is also well suited for deliberate killing, since its poison is highly toxic, and the taste can be easily overwhelmed by spices.
#11 May Lily of the Valley
The most spring poisonous plant is widely known in Europe, Asia and North America. It can be found in almost any area among older people. Lily of the valley is unpretentious, aesthetic and fragrant. But it contains poison that can stop the heart.
#12 Castor bean
This plant is popular among gardeners around the world, but the Asian tropics are considered its homeland. The most poisonous part of the plant is the fruit, which contains ricin. According to the Guinness Book of Records, ricin is the most powerful plant poison in the world.
#13 Stinging tree
If in Australia or Oceania you come across a plant that looks like a harmless burdock, do not try to pick it. The stinging tree is covered with needles that contain a powerful neurotoxin that instantly causes pain. Because of it, many dogs and other pets died.
#14 Wrestler
Wolfsbane is similar in appearance to lupine and is known for its vibrant, deep purple flowers. It grows all over the world, but the high mountain meadows of Europe and Asia are considered its homeland. The roots and seeds of aconite are extremely poisonous. As with most poisons, small doses are used in medicines. In particular - for cardiac muscle stimulants.
#15 Brugmansia
This evergreen shrub is native to the Andes and can reach six meters in height. The plant is poisonous from roots to fruits. However, Brazilians smoke dried Brugmansia leaves, which have a strong narcotic effect for communicating with spirits and, oddly enough, for treating asthma (there is no scientific evidence for this).
#16 Tobacco
Perhaps the most common type of poisonous plants consumed by humans. Contains nicotine and a whole bunch of toxins, the dangers of which everyone knows.
#17 Dieffenbachia
Dieffenbachia is native to Central America. It is often grown as a houseplant, but not all amateur gardeners know that Dieffenbachia has extremely poisonous leaves. It is believed that one portion of the poison paralyzes the vocal cords, the second immobilizes the entire body, and the third causes death.
#18 Yew Berry
This valuable tree is not only a beautiful material for furniture and interior decoration, but also has a powerful poison (it is not only found in the berries, but the seeds are no less poisonous). Pollen is also poisonous and can cause lung spasms, suffocation, and rashes. Distributed throughout Eurasia.
#19 Narcissus
Known since ancient times, this flower can be found in every garden. All plants of this species contain the poison lycorine (especially a lot of it in the bulb). Not everyone knows about the toxic properties of this beautiful flower, but narcissus has long been used by people for suicide (the likelihood of severe poisoning, vomiting and diarrhea is much higher than eating a critical dose of lycorine).
#20 Voronets Thick-legged
In its homeland, in North America, this plant is also called “doll eyes” because of its white berries with a black tail. Voronets venom causes relaxation of the heart muscles, burning of the mucous membranes, hallucinations and memory loss. Severe poisoning in the absence of medical attention inevitably leads to death.
#21 Larkspur
Also known as dilphinium, this genus contains more than 300 species that are widely distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere. It is easy to cultivate, has beautiful and bright flowers, but contains a number of toxins, the consumption of which causes severe poisoning and can lead to death.
#22 Broom Crown
This shrub from the legume family has a strong poison, known to the peoples of Europe for a long time. If you consume it, cardiac or respiratory arrest may occur. Alkoloids contained in broom juice have a particularly negative effect on children, pregnant women and the elderly.
#23 Foxglove
Champion in the number of symptoms of poisoning: fever, hyperventilation, hallucinations, nausea, diarrhea, weakness, runny nose, aching joints. And this despite the fact that foxglove is a popular plant for gardening and ornamental cultivation due to its incredibly beautiful inflorescences. Another name for foxgloves (in the West) is dead bells.
#24 Datura Common
Datura is a member of the nightshade family. It is not for nothing that the name of the plant is synonymous with poison. It contains scopolamine and other toxins, so the risk of becoming a victim of dope is extremely high (especially among people who are unfamiliar with the symptoms of poisoning).
#25 Cassia trumpet
This shrub can grow seven meters in height. It can be recognized by its incredibly beautiful cascade of fragrant flowers. All parts of the plant are poisonous, but it is the pods that carry the danger, since children may mistakenly mistake them for pea pods, from which they are practically indistinguishable. Over the past few years, there have been 7 fatal cases of cassia poisoning in England alone.
Poisonous plants are increasingly becoming neighbors of humanity, migrating from deep jungles to apartments. However, this does not mean that they have lost their deadly power. So remember: this beauty is truly deadly.
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It's no secret that the natural world is extremely diverse and multifaceted. We use the gifts of our Earth, plants, every day. However, we should not forget that among the representatives of the flora living in different parts of the planet, there are a huge number of potentially dangerous to human life and health. Do not underestimate the possible harm from encountering poisonous herbs, berries, and mushrooms.
Belladonna's yellow and black berries are especially poisonous, however, the stems and leaves also contain poison.
From Belladonna they obtained the chemical substance atropine, which has a fairly strong effect on the central nervous system, for example, under its action the pupils dilate.
This property of Belladonna made it a favorite “beauty” potion among Italian women in the old days, hence the name of the plant, which means “beautiful woman.” Atropine is now used in traditional medicine. The effect of such, even modern drugs, however, can hardly be called absolutely safe.
The first signs of Belladonna poisoning may be:
Hallucinations and confusion are possible.
The first aid in this case will be emergency gastric lavage with potassium permanganate.
Hogweed
This name of a poisonous plant is familiar to many, because more than 40 species of Hogweed grow in our country alone (not all of them are poisonous).
It is not difficult to recognize: hogweed is a large and usually tall plant (can reach 2.5 meters) with small white flowers collected in “umbrellas”. Very often, Hogweed grows along country roads.
Its danger is that this plant can leave a serious burn on the skin, especially on a sunny day. This is due to the substances furanocoumarins; under the influence of ultraviolet radiation they enhance their effect. Just touching the leaves of Hogweed is painless in itself, until sunlight begins to actively fall on the affected area. The consequences may be a second degree burn. Getting the plant juice into your eyes is extremely dangerous. The result may be complete or partial loss of vision.
As first aid for a Hogweed burn, you need to disinfect the affected area of skin with furatsilin or potassium permanganate and apply Bepanten ointment.
It is necessary to get rid of Hogweed by carefully cutting off the buds (strictly wearing closed clothing and gloves). The use of herbicides will also be useful.
Crow's eye four leaf
Crow's eye is a poisonous plant, quite attractive in appearance: in the center there is a rosette of 4 leaves, and above them is one bright purple berry. All parts of the Crow's Eye pose a danger to life and health: the berry for the heart, the leaves for the central nervous system, the roots for the stomach. Children often become victims of this poisonous plant; they are attracted by unusual berries, somewhat similar to blueberries or blueberries.
Signs of poisoning, depending on the part eaten, will include severe abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions or cardiac arrest.
If you suspect poisoning with Crow's Eye, you must do an urgent gastric lavage. It would also be a good idea to take Regidron.
Let's look at 2 more poisonous plants, common throughout Russia.
Lily of the valley
It is unlikely that anyone needs a visual description of the poisonous lily of the valley plant. Many have heard about the dangerous properties of this beautiful and beloved plant, but, nevertheless, few take this information seriously. But in vain! Lily of the valley has very strong chemical properties, it is often used in minimal doses in pharmacology, and in general, it is well established as an assistant in the fight against heart disease.
However, it is worth remembering that this plant is extremely poisonous and dangerous if used rashly on its own. Two or three berries eaten by a child while walking in the forest can lead to rapid death!
If the skin is pale, heart rhythm disturbances, weakness and nausea are present, it is necessary to urgently induce vomiting and then take sorbents.
Wolf's Bast
Poisoning by the poisonous plant Wolf's Bast or Wolf's Berry, as it is also called, is extremely dangerous. Outwardly it looks like a shrub with glossy leaves and clusters of bright red fleshy berries that attract the eye. Despite its beauty, this plant is almost never used as decorative landscaping. Wolfberry contains a set of toxic substances. Just the smell of a flowering plant can give you a headache, and if you eat more than 5 berries, death is extremely likely.
High salivation, burns, indigestion, burning in the eyes and mouth, bloody stomach discharge - this is an incomplete list of symptoms of poisoning by this most dangerous plant. If the victim can still be saved, he is nevertheless guaranteed serious lifelong consequences associated with poor heart function.
Not only harm, but also benefit
Perhaps, reading this article, many will wonder - why, in fact, are poisonous plants needed?
There are no unnecessary links in nature: it is unique and thoughtful. The toxic properties of certain plant species are a disadvantage for humans, while for the plants themselves it is the ability to evolve. Growth, survival, ability to adapt to changing conditions - many plants owe all this to their toxicity.
In addition, over time, people still learned to use the harmful properties of many herbs, flowers and berries for their own benefit. An example of this is the huge number of medications created on the basis of poisonous plants.
Glycosides complex, nitrogen-free organic. substances, the molecule of which consists of a carbohydrate and a non-carbohydrate component, the so-called. aglycone (genin). Aglycones can be residues of fatty, aromatic compounds. and heterocyclic. rows. G. are widespread in nature, especially in plants. world. Mn. of them are used in medical practice (as vitamins, antibiotics, heart medications) and have toxicological properties. properties. Medicines G. are found in various parts of the plural. plants. G.'s composition usually includes monosaccharides; it is possible to add several sugar molecules.
According to chemistry composition of drug aglycones. G. is classified into phenol glycosides, thiogdicosides, nitrile glycosides (cyanoglycosides), G. - derivatives of phenylbenzo-y-pyrone (flavones); anthraglycosides; G. - derivatives of 1,2-cyclopentanophenanthrene, saponins, other glycosides. Phenol glycosides include G. isolated from bearberry leaves (for example, arbutin). G. drugs of this group are used as diuretics and disinfectants. Thioglycosides include sinigrin, isolated from the seeds of black mustard, as well as G., contained in plants of this family. cruciferous vegetables, which have toxicological properties. properties. Nitrile glycosides include nitrile glycosides contained in the kernels of bitter almonds, cherries, and apricots (amygdalin), in flax (linamarin), in commercial plants (durrin), etc. Being a source of formation of hydrocyanic acid, they play an important role in phytotoxicology (see. Poisonous plants). G.-derivatives of phenyl-benzo-y-pyrone include yellow plants. pigments found in many plants. Flavonic acids eliminate increased permeability and fragility of capillaries, have a hypotensive effect, and protect ascorbic acid from oxidation. Anthraglycosides are found in various types of cassia, sabur, rhubarb, and buckthorn. Some preparations of these plants are used as laxatives. G. derivatives of 1,2-cyclopentanophenanthrene (for example, G. foxglove, adonis, lily of the valley) represent the most important group of medicinal G., which have a pronounced cardiotonic effect. activity. Saponins are found in more than 150 plant species of the ranunculaceae, lilies, legumes, cloves, primroses, etc. families. Saponins belonging to this group form, like soap, highly foaming colloidal solutions with water; are cellular poisons. Other G. in chemistry. relation has not been sufficiently studied. Some of them are used as bitters. Bitter substances in the form of G. contain trefoil, dandelion and other plants.
Cardiac glycosides very toxic substances of plant origin, but in small doses they stimulate cardiac activity. Used to treat heart and other diseases. Under the influence of acids, they break down into sugar and aglycone (steroid). Free aglycones of cardiac glycosides (genins) strong poisons that are not used in medicine; Among them, strophanthidin (convallate oxygenin) is the most well studied; it is contained in lily of the valley, hemp lily, and wallflower. Other aglycones are also known, for example, digitoxigenin, dioxygenin, gitoxigenin, periplogenin, sarmentogenin, adonitoxigenin, etc.
Poisonous plants plants containing specific substances that, with a certain exposure (dose and duration of exposure), can cause illness or death in humans or other animals. In the plant world there are thousands of toxic substances, which are usually divided into several groups depending on their chemical nature. For example, alkaloids, glycosides, phytotoxins, photosensitizing pigments, saponins, mineral poisons, etc. are isolated. They can also be classified according to the clinical picture of poisoning. There are, say, neurotoxins, liver and kidney poisons, substances that irritate the digestive tract, cause respiratory arrest, damage the skin, and cause developmental defects. Sometimes one substance belongs to several chemical classes at once or acts on several organ systems.
The toxicity of at least 700 North American plant species is well established. They are known in all major taxonomic groups, from algae to monocots. There are poisonous unicellular ferns, gymnosperms and angiosperms; Sometimes poisoning is caused by mold, smut or rust fungi present on plants or in plant foods. Although bacteria and fungi are now classified as independent kingdoms of organisms, some of them are traditionally considered together with poisonous plants.
Poisoning and other reactions. A distinction is made between poisoning and infection caused by bacteria or fungi. Infectious agents settle in another organism, destroying tissues and multiplying at their expense. Poisonous organisms release toxic substances that act regardless of whether the organism that formed them is alive or dead, whether it is present or no longer present at the time of poisoning. For example, botulinum toxin produced by bacteria Clostridium botulinum, causes intoxication (botulism), even if the bacterium itself was killed during sterilization of the products.
Poisoning should also be distinguished from allergic reactions that occur in animals when they are exposed to special substances - allergens, present, in particular, in some plants. Thus, a skin rash that occurs when touching rooting sumac ( Rhus toxicodendron, according to another classification Toxicodendron radicans) or related species, allergic reaction to certain substances present in a given plant. Repeated contact with an allergen can increase sensitivity to it. Redness and irritation of the skin are caused by certain substances without sensitization, for example the milky juice of euphorbia ( Euphorbia spp.) or the secretion of stinging nettle hairs ( Urtica spp.). Local sunburn, sometimes persisting for many months as a dark pigment spot, can occur due to exposure to psoralen on damp skin. This phenolic compound is present in parsnips ( Pastinaca sativa), white ash ( Dictamnus albus), lime zest ( Citrus aurantifolia) and some other plants.
Exposure to toxic compounds. The nature of poisoning depends on the reactions that occur in the animal’s body, as well as on the extent to which the poison accumulates in the body and how it is removed from it. In some cases, a toxic substance is formed in animal tissues from a harmless precursor present in the plant. So, when eating wild plum leaves ( Prunus spp.) cyanide is released from the harmless glycosides they contain; Nitrates present in feed or food are converted by the animal's body into the much more toxic nitrites. However, in most cases, plant toxins exert their effects without prior chemical change.
When eaten, the poison enters primarily into the oral cavity. Some irritants, such as arum plants ( Dieffenbachia etc.) operate mainly at this level. The poison then passes to subsequent parts of the digestive system (without necessarily damaging them) and can be absorbed or excreted. After absorption, it primarily enters the portal vein of the liver and the liver itself. There, its chemical detoxification can occur, i.e., it is converted into a harmless form and excreted in the bile; on the other hand, it can cause damage to liver cells or simply pass through it and enter other organs and tissues with the blood; in this case, damage to the entire body or only some structures sensitive to the poison is possible.
Since poisons enter primarily the digestive system, its anatomical and physiological characteristics in a given animal species significantly influence the manifestation of the toxic effect of a particular substance. For example, in birds, food passes through the crop and gizzard before absorption, and in ruminants, in particular cows, goats and sheep, it is first (in the rumen) exposed to microbial enzymes and only then is it actually digested and absorbed. Both birds and ruminants in this sense differ sharply from “one-gastric” animals, such as pigs and horses, in which plant material begins to be digested in the stomach almost immediately after ingestion. The ease of removing eaten food by vomiting also varies depending on the type of digestive system. Ruminants are able to get rid of only part of the contents of the first section of the stomach - the rumen - in this way, while humans, dogs and pigs can quickly and efficiently empty this entire organ. A horse also vomits, but due to the structure of its soft palate, the vomited material ends up in the trachea, which usually results in death from suffocation. Fortunately, many poisons themselves stimulate the vomiting reaction.
From the book: “Poisons yesterday and today.”
Ida Gadaskina.
Aconitum napelles(monk's hood, wrestler), a perennial herb in the ranunculaceae family, has a helmet-shaped flower. About 300 species of this plant are known, all of them are poisonous, although they were used in the Middle Ages in Arab and Persian medicine. Currently used only in homeopathy. The toxic alkaloid is found mainly in tubers in the form of a compound with organic acids (C 34 H 47 NO 17). Aconitine stimulates and then paralyzes the production of chemical transmitters (mediators) in the nerve nodes (ganglia) of the autonomic nervous system. Death occurs from the direct action of the poison on the respiratory center.
Theophrastus writes that “the poison from it (monkshood) is prepared in a certain way, which is not known to everyone. Therefore, doctors who do not know this composition give aconite as an aid to digestion, as well as in other cases. If you drink it with wine and honey, then its taste is completely imperceptible. The poison is made from it with the expectation that it will act within the prescribed period: after two, three, six months, after a year, sometimes after two years. People who pine away from it for a long time die very hard; the easiest death from it is instantaneous. Plants that would serve as an antidote to it, which we have heard exist for other poisons, have not been found... It is not allowed to buy it, and such a purchase is punishable by death.” It must be added, however, that there is no certainty that what has been said refers specifically to the plant in question, since its description does not coincide with the descriptions made by Dioscorides and other later authors. It is quite possible that this poison became a symbol of all poison for antiquity.
The plant got its name from the Greeks either from the name of the city Akon, associated with the name of Hercules, or from the word “akon”, which means “poisonous juice”. The strong salivation caused by the poison, according to legend, is also associated with the myth of Hercules, who, in a fight with the guardian of Hades, the three-headed dog Cerberus, drove him into such a rage that the dog began to emit saliva, from which poisonous aconite grew. Aconite, the most poisonous plant poison, was familiar to many peoples of the East. In India and the Himalayas there is a species of plant called "scourge". This kind ( Aconitum ferox) contains the alkaloid pseudoakonitine C 36 H 49 NO 12, which is close to aconitine, but is even more toxic. Harvesting of the root in India occurs in the fall and is accompanied by a number of mystical ceremonies, and when drying and grinding the root, precautions are taken, fearing its poisonous effect. The root is stored in bamboo tubes and sold in this form. The drink “nehvai” was widespread, obtained by fermenting boiled rice, to which aconite root was sometimes added, which repeatedly led to poisoning. Once upon a time, in the Kazakh steppes (USSR), aconite was not only poisoned, but also doomed the victim to slow, inevitable death. Even horses of rivals in competitions were eliminated with the help of a poisonous root (P. Massagetov). A.P. Chekhov met with victims of this poison on Sakhalin.
History has not preserved the origins of the custom of using poison to punish criminals. However, already in historical times, the Hellenes had a “state poison”, which they called hemlock, which acquired bitter fame, being the cause of the death of many illustrious men in Greece. Pliny, Tacitus, and Seneca wrote about the deadly hemlock in Roman times: “Hemlock, a poison terrible when consumed, was used in Athens to kill criminals” (Pliny St.); “This is the poison that was used to kill criminals in Athens” (Tacitus); “The poison with which Athenians convicted by a criminal court are killed” (Seneca). Athens, like other policies, did not immediately reach democracy, but the reforms of Solon (594 BC), the rule and laws of Pericles (about 490...429 BC) strengthened the democratic management, which must be understood as the presence of certain legal norms of all free citizens of the policy.
Conium maculatum spotted hemlock, omega spotted, or hemlock (a name preserved from ancient times), belongs to the Umbelliferae family, all parts of it are poisonous. The toxic principle is the alkaloid coniine (C 8 H 17 N). The minimum lethal dose for humans is not clear, but it is certainly only a few milligrams. Coniine is a poison that causes paralysis of the endings of motor nerves, apparently little affecting the cerebral hemispheres. Convulsions caused by poison lead to suffocation.
Theophrastus gives a detailed description of the method of making poison from the stems of the plant and refers his readers to the doctor Thrasius, who “found, they say, a remedy that makes death easy and painless. He took the juice of hemlock, poppy and other similar herbs and prepared tiny pills, weighing about a drachm... There is no antidote for this at all.” Pliny the Elder, the author of Natural History, who lived in an era when suicide was considered a worthy way out, among other poisonous plants, described the effect of hemlock. At the same time, he emphasizes that nature took pity on man and sent him various poisons for a painless death. It is quite possible that the ancients called the poisonous hemlock Cicuta virosa, containing the poisonous alkaloid cicutotoxin..
After isolating the alkaloid from the plant, attempts were made to use it as a medicine; The effect of the poison was studied on animals, but the alkaloid did not receive medicinal value. Already in the 19th century. At the Vienna School of Pharmacology, auto-experiments were widely carried out to analyze the effect of toxic substances on humans. These experiments involved doctors or medical students. The historical glory of hemlock aroused special interest in its poison. Several students carried out experiments on themselves who took single doses of coniine from 0.003 to 0.008 g orally. They revealed a local irritant effect on the mucous membranes, pronounced muscle weakness, which at the slightest muscle tension led to painful cramps. Poisoning was accompanied by headache, dizziness, gastrointestinal upset, drowsiness, and confusion.
“The Age of Pericles” is the heyday of Athenian democracy and at the same time the hegemony of Athens in the Greek world: their enrichment, extensive trade activities, entrepreneurship, successes in art and literature. Political and economic conditions lead to the fact that philosophers begin to turn from questions of cosmology to man: his initiative, entrepreneurial activity, knowledge. Any Athenian citizen can speak in the national assembly, but he must express his opinion well and clearly. New skills are now needed: logical, consistent presentation, eloquence is needed. The teachers of these modern demands are sophistic philosophers, paid teachers of logical eloquence who have little interest in moral issues. It is against this background of passion for sophistry that Socrates appears, about whom our further story will go. Seneca will later say about Socrates: “Hemlock made Socrates great... he drank hemlock juice as a way to become immortal.”
Socrates, together with some sophists, was the first to turn in philosophy to the problem of man and, in particular, to the problem of reason. This was new. His desire to analyze ordinary human actions and concepts aroused hostility and sometimes even fear among many of his contemporaries. Socrates expressed his views orally, conducting conversations in the streets, squares, public and private places. His life was spent in conversations, but the manner of conversations, both in style and content, and in its purpose, differed sharply from the external pomposity of sophistic rhetoricians. These polemical conversations, often ironic, usually baffled the interlocutor, as they hurt his self-esteem. Aristocrats considered Socrates a cheeky commoner, and democrats saw him as their whistleblower.
The philosophy of Socrates came down to an understanding of a virtuous life, achieved by moderation, abstinence, and reasonable needs. Directly or indirectly, ambition, the desire for wealth, luxury, and the subordination of a person to his passions, feelings, and whims were condemned or ridiculed. These conversations made Socrates, during his lifetime, the most popular figure not only in Athens, but throughout Hellas. Socrates didn't write anything. His views, conversations, and habits can be judged from the notes of his friends and students, from the dialogues of Plato and from the memoirs of Xenophon.
Great excitement in the February days of 399 BC. e. caused a message in Athenian society that the young, unimportant writer Meletus filed a complaint against the seventy-year-old philosopher, demanding his death. The text of the accusation is as follows: “This accusation was drawn up and, confirmed by oath, filed by Meletus, son of Meletus from the deme of Pittos, against Socrates, son of Sophronix from the deme of Alopeka: Socrates is guilty of denying the gods recognized by the city and introducing new divine beings; He is also guilty of seducing young people. The death penalty is proposed."
Over 500 judges took part in the process. Three hundred people against two hundred and fifty sentenced Socrates to death. What happened? The authorities, who considered themselves democratic, could not stand the good-natured irony of Socrates, and he was sentenced to death, such as had never been pronounced in Athens in cases of abstract ideological disagreement. Socrates did not want to ask for pardon or commutation of punishment. He told his judges: “...it is not life, but a good life that is the greatest good for a mortal.” For a number of reasons, his execution was postponed for 30 days. They tried to persuade him to escape, but he remained imprisoned and continued to talk with his friends, talking about life and death.
Plato met Socrates when Socrates was already 60 years old, and Socrates forever remained for him the ideal of a man and a philosopher: in Plato’s writings, Socrates appears as a character. The death of Socrates was described by Plato, although he was not present during the last conversation with him, as he was ill (Plato “Phaedo”).
When Socrates saw the prison servant, he asked him: “Well, dear friend, what should I do with this cup?” He replied: “You must only drink it, then walk back and forth until your thighs become heavy, and then lie down, and then the poison will continue its effect...” Socrates emptied the goblet very cheerfully and without malice. He walked back and forth, and when he noticed that his thighs were heavy, he lay down straight on his back, as the prison servant had told him. Then the latter began to touch him from time to time and examine his feet and thighs... After this, the attendant squeezed his foot tightly and asked if he felt anything at the same time. Socrates replied: “No.” The attendant first pressed on the knee, then pressed higher and higher and showed us that the body was becoming cold and numb. After that, he touched him again and said that as soon as the effect of the poison reaches the heart, death will occur. When his stomach had already become completely cold, Socrates opened up (he was lying covered) and said: “We must sacrifice a rooster to Asclepius, do it immediately,” these were his last words. “It will be done,” replied Crito, “but think about whether you have anything else to tell us.” But Socrates did not answer, and soon after this his body shuddered. When the servant opened it, his eyes were already motionless. Seeing this, Crito closed his mouth and eyes.
The sacrifice of a rooster to Asclepius, the god of healing, was usually supposed to ensure recovery. Did Socrates mean the recovery of his soul and its liberation from the mortal body? Or was this his usual irony?
Author V.I. Petrov, T.I. RevyakoThe study of plant poisons began with the German pharmacist Zerthuner, when in 1803 he isolated morphine from opium. In subsequent decades, naturalists and pharmacists isolated more and more poisons, primarily from exotic plants. Since these poisons had the same basic character for all of them - they were similar to alkalis, they received the general name of alkaloids. All plant alkaloids have an effect on the nervous system of humans and animals: in small doses they act as a medicine, in larger doses - as a deadly poison.
In 1818, Cavant and Pelletier isolated the deadly strychnine from the vomiting nut. In 1820, Desos found quinine in the bark of the cinchona tree, and Runge found caffeine in coffee. In 1826, Giesecke discovered conia in hemlock. In 1828, Possel and Ryman isolated nicotine from tobacco, and Main in 1831 obtained atropine from belladonna.
About two thousand different plant alkaloids were still awaiting their discovery - from cocaine, hyoscyamine, hyoscine and colchicine to aconitine. Some time passed until the first alkaloids made their way from still small laboratories and scientists’ offices to doctors, chemists and pharmacists, and then to a wider circle of people. Naturally, it turned out that at first it was doctors who took advantage of not only their healing, but also their poisonous properties. But quite soon, these poisons ended up in completely different hands, which led to a constant increase in the number of murders and suicides committed with their help. However, each murder and suicide once again proved that plant poisons lead to death, leaving, unlike arsenic and other metal-mineral poisons, no traces in the body of the deceased that could be detected.
All plant poisons are soluble in both water and alcohol. In contrast, almost all substances of the human body - from proteins and fats to the cellulose of the stomach and intestines - are insoluble in water, alcohol, or both. If you mix human organs (after they have been crushed and turned into pulp) or their contents with a large amount of alcohol to which acid has been added, then such acidified alcohol is able to penetrate into the mass of the material under study, dissolving plant poisons - alkaloids - and entering into contact with them connections.
If you filter a slurry soaked in alcohol and let the alcohol drain, it will take with it, in addition to sugar, mucus and other substances of the human body dissolved in alcohol, poisonous alkaloids, leaving only those substances that are insoluble in it. If you repeatedly mix this residue of substances with fresh alcohol and repeat the filtration until the alcohol no longer absorbs anything from it, but flows clean, then you can be sure that the vast majority of the poisonous alkaloids that were in the pulp from the crushed organs of the deceased , turned into alcohol. If you then evaporate the alcohol filtrate to a syrupy state, treat this syrup with water and filter the resulting solution repeatedly, then those components of the human body that are insoluble in water, for example fat, etc., will remain on the filter, while alkaloids due to their solubility in water will drain along with it.
To obtain even purer solutions of the desired poisons, free from “animal” substances, the resulting watery extract can and should be evaporated repeatedly and re-treated with alcohol and water until a product is finally formed that will completely dissolve in both alcohol and water. But this solution is still acidic, and the acid binds the plant alkaloids in it. If you add an alkalizing agent to it, say caustic soda or caustic potash, the alkaloids will be released.
To lure “free” plant poisons out of an alkaline solution, a solvent is required that, when shaken with water, would form an emulsion for a while, and after settling, would again separate from the water. Ether is such a solvent. Ether is lighter than water, it mixes with it when shaken, and then separates from it again. But at the same time, the ether absorbs plant alkaloids that have become free. By distilling the ether with great care, or allowing it to evaporate on a saucer, we will eventually obtain an extract containing the alkaloid we are looking for, if, of course, it was contained in the solution at all.
By adding ammonia in the last phase and using chloroform and amyl alcohol instead of ether, the most important opium alkaloid, morphine, can also be isolated from the human body.
In the second quarter of the 20th century, as natural plant alkaloids were studied, artificial synthetic products were created that were similar in both their therapeutic and toxic effects to plant alkaloids or even superior to them.
Known plant poisons have been supplemented by a real stream of “synthetic alkaloids.” It intensified even more when the first antihistamines were released in France in 1937 - artificial active substances against allergic diseases of all types - from asthma to skin rashes. Within a few years their number exceeded two thousand, and of this number at least several dozen quickly gained wide popularity as medicines.
Of the 300 thousand plant species growing on the globe, about 700 can cause severe or fatal poisoning in humans.
The toxic properties of poisonous plants are associated with their active principles, which are represented by both individual physically active substances and a mixture of chemical compounds, between gradients of which potentiation and summation of effects can occur.
The active toxic principles of poisonous plants are various compounds, which relate mainly to alkaloids, glycosides, plant soaps (saponins), acids (hydrocyanic, oxalic), resins, hydrocarbons, etc.
According to the degree of toxicity, plants are divided into:
1. Poisonous: white acacia, elderberry, oak anemone, honeysuckle, lily of the valley, buttercup, ivy, etc.
2. Highly poisonous: foxglove, common oleander, broom, nightshade, etc.
3. Deadly poisonous: aconite, colchicum, black henbane, belladonna, poisonous wech, wolf's bast, datura, Cossack juniper, castor beetle, etc.
